Shift in Professional Orientations
As a third example of philosophical analyses in recreation and leisure studies, a number of authors have examined the changing approaches found within the recreation and park profession. To illustrate, Wayne Stormann points out that there has been a pronounced shift from the earl: decades of the twentieth century-when the field was dominated by progressive reformer, who sought to improve community life through organized play-to today, where recreation has become an area of professional service that has been, in his words, "bureaucratized, commercialized, and centralized."10 The popular idea of the professional as an expert technician who markets leisure "products" or prescribes social services and solutions is in sharp contrast to the idea of leisure as a domain in which participatory democracy can flourish and community residents can gain valuable experience in managing their own lives.
Prescriptive Approach
Of the orientations described here, the prescriptive is the most purposeful in the way it de fines the goals and functions of the recreational experience. The idea that recreation should bring about constructive change in participants has been stressed in a number of textbook on programming. For example, Ruth Russell describes "programmed recreation" chiefly as a form of organized and purposeful activity designed in an orderly and deliberate way to achieve desirable individual and group results.16 Similarly, Christopher Edginton, David Compton, and Carole Hanson define a recreation program as: a purposeful plan of intervention, which is deliberately designed and constructed in order to prod certain behavioral outcomes in an individual and/or group.17
The clearest cases of prescriptive recreation programs are found in therapeutic recreation For example, Paul Wehman and Stuart Schleien describe the curriculum design sequence in therapeutic recreation as it is used to develop either an individualized education program or an individualized habilitation plan. In order to help patients or clients master important motor skills, improve social behavior, or achieve other goals of treatment, members of the treatment team review the individual's level of illness or disability, past recreation, education, other experiences and skills, and current level of functioning. On the basis of this review, a curriculum is devised to include the following program components: (1) aprogram goal; (2) an instruction objective (short-term); (3) a task analysis of each skill; (4) the verbal cue required for instruction in the skill; (5) materials that are required for instruction; and (6) teaching procedures a special adaptations for each skill.18

专业取向的转变
作为第三个例子中的哲学分析娱乐和休闲研究，一些作者已审查了不断变化的办法发现的娱乐和休闲的职业。为了说明这一点，鲁尼指出出现了明显转变的时期： 20世纪，当外地的主导力量是渐进的改革者，他们设法改善社区生活，通过举办比赛，到今天，已成为在娱乐一个领域的专业服务，用他的话说， “官僚化，商业化，和高度集中。 ” 作为专家，流行思想的专业技术人员推出市场休闲“产品”或规定的社会服务和解决方案，这些想法形成了鲜明的对比，为旨在参与式民主能够蓬勃发展和社区居民能获得宝贵的经验，在管理自己的生活。
规范做法
在这里描述的方向，最有意义的方式是指令性的目标和职能的娱乐体验。休闲的想法应该带来建设性的变化，与会者强调了在一些教科书上节目。例如，露丝罗素介绍“编程康乐”主要是一种形式，是一种有组织和有目的的活动，旨在有秩序和有针对性的方法来实现理想的个人和团体；同样，克里斯托弗爱丁顿 ，大卫康普顿和卡罗尔汉森定义一个娱乐节目如：一个有意义的计划干预，这是故意设计和建造，以刺激某些行为的结果是个人和组织。
最明显的案例是针对性的娱乐节目中找到治疗方法，例如，保罗温尔曼和斯图尔特斯查雷恩描述课程设计的序列来进行娱乐治疗，因为它是用来开发要么是个性化教育计划或个性化康复计划。为了帮助患者或客户掌握重要的运动技能，改善社会的行为，或实现其他目标的待遇，成员治疗小组审查个人的水平，疾病或残疾，过去的娱乐，教育，其他方面的经验和技能，以及目前的水平的运作。在此基础上审查结果，课程设计，包括下列项目的组成部分： （ 1 ） 最终目标; （ 2 ）教学目标（短期） ; （ 3 ）单独技能的任务分析; （ 4 ）口头教学中所需的技能; （ 5 ）材料所需的指示;（ 6 ）教学程序，特别适应每种技能